Secretory Vesicles Are the Primary Method of SARS-CoV-2 Evacuation.

Several fungal trunk pathogens are associated with olive trunk diseases in South Africa. Little is known regarding the inoculum sources of these pathogens in the olive industry and no specific management strategies are in place. The aim of this study was to investigate the status of olive nurseries in South Africa, with regard to the presence of trunk pathogens in olive plant material, to determine whether nursery material can be considered inoculum sources contributing to long distance dispersal of these pathogens. Isolations were made from asymptomatic cuttings from mother blocks (Stage 1), asymptomatic and symptomatic rooted cuttings (Stage 2) and 1- to 2-year-old trees (Stage 3) of eight cultivars in two nurseries. Known olive trunk pathogens of Nectriaceae, Diaporthaceae, Botrysphaeriaceae, Togniniaceae, Phaeomoniellaceae and Pleurostomataceae were recovered. Neofusicoccum australe was detected in a single Stage 1 cutting. Stage 3 material showed the highest incidence of fungi from these families, with Pleurostoma richardsiae having the highest incidence in both nurseries (82.2% and 36.7% of the 1- to 2-year-old trees). Phaeoacremonium parasiticum was present in 28.9% of the trees from one nursery (Stage 3). The remaining pathogens occurred in 13.3% or less of the material. These results indicate that nursery propagation material from mother blocks harbour low levels of trunk pathogens, and that additional infections occur during the nursery process. Management strategies should focus on the prevention and elimination of infections in mother blocks, as well as during the propagation process to ensure pathogen-free material is delivered to producers.Studying spatial and temporal plant disease dynamics helps to understand pathogen dispersal processes and improve disease control recommendations. In this study, three cacao plots devoid of primary inoculum of Phytophthora megakarya (causal agent of cacao black pod rot disease) upon establishment in 2006 were monitored for presence of disease on a weekly basis from 2009 to 2016. Ripley's K(r) function, join count statistics and Fisher Exact test were used to analyse spatial and temporal disease dynamics. Disease distribution maps showed aggregated disease patterns in all plots although for the years of disease onset, exogenous primary infections were mostly randomly distributed. The K(r) function confirmed these results indicating that inoculum generally disperses only over short distances. Moreover, significant positive spatial autocorrelations showed that diseased trees were often clustered up to a distance of 3-9 m. Temporal disease progression was low, meaning that endogenous inoculum failed to establish itself which is partly explained by rigorous phytosanitation and partly by unfavourable microclimatic conditions for disease development. Since P. megakarya had difficulty establishing itself in the plots, proximity to already infected cacao plantations drove infection dynamics. Thus, isolation of newly established cacao plantations from infected ones and rigorous phytosanitation as a preventive strategy appears to be an effective approach to control black pod for newly established cacao plantations.Blackleg, caused by Leptosphaeria maculans, is a major disease of canola in Canada, Australia, and Europe. For effective deployment of resistant varieties and disease management, it is crucial to understand the population structure of L. maculans. In this study, we analyze L. maculans isolates from commercial fields in western Canada from 2014 to 2016 for the presence and frequency of avirulence (Avr) genes. A total of 1, 584 isolates was examined for the presence of Avr genes AvrLm1, AvrLm2, AvrLm3, AvrLm4, AvrLm6, AvrLm7, AvrLm9, AvrLepR1, AvrLepR2, and AvrLmS using a set of differential host genotypes carrying known resistance genes and a PCR assay. Several Avr genes showed a higher frequency in the pathogen population, such as AvrLm6 and AvrLm7, which were present in >90% of isolates; while AvrLm3, AvrLm9 and AvrLepR2 showed frequencies of less then 10%. A total of 189 races (different combinations of Avr genes) were detected, with Avr-2-4-6-7-S, Avr-1-4-6-7 and Avr-2-4-6-7 as the three predominant races. When the effect of crop rotation was assessed, only a three-year rotation showed a significantly higher frequency of AvrLm2, relative to shorter rotations. This study provides the information for producers to select effective canola varieties for blackleg management, and for breeders to deploy new R genes in disease resistance breeding in the western Canada region.With the rapid increase in the frequency of azole-resistant species, combination therapy appears to be a promising tool to augment the antifungal activity of azole drugs against resistant Candida species. Here, we report the effect of aprepitant, an antiemetic agent, on the antifungal activities of azole drugs against the multidrug-resistant Candida auris. Aprepitant reduced the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of itraconazole in vitro, by up to eight-folds. Additionally, the aprepitant/itraconazole combination interfered significantly with the biofilm-forming ability of C. auris by 95 ± 0.13%, and significantly disrupted mature biofilms by 52 ± 0.83%, relative to the untreated control. In a Caenorhabditis elegans infection model, the aprepitant/itraconazole combination significantly prolonged the survival of infected nematodes by ~90% (five days post-infection) and reduced the fungal burden by ~92% relative to the untreated control. Further, this novel drug combination displayed broad-spectrum synergistic interactions against other medically important Candida species such as C. albicans, C. krusei, C. tropicalis, and C. parapsilosis (ƩFICI ranged from 0.08 to 0.31). Comparative transcriptomic profiling and mechanistic studies indicated aprepitant/itraconazole interferes significantly with metal ion homeostasis and compromises the ROS detoxification ability of C. auris. This study presents aprepitant as a novel, potent, and broad-spectrum azole chemosensitizing agent that warrants further investigation.Carboxymethyl cellulose granules (CMC-G) and kappa-carrageenan/polyethylene oxide/polyethylene glycol dressing (KPP-D) hemostatic agents, developed through radiation-induced crosslinking and sterilization, were tested in Sprague-Dawley rats using three bleeding models (a) deep wound with the puncture of femoral artery; (b) aortic puncture; and (c) partial nephrectomy. Dressing and granules were applied in the animals without sustained compression and monitored for a period of 7 or 14 days. Comparisons were made against the commercial chitosan-based agent, Celox (CLX). Primary outcomes observed were bleeding time, the incidence of re-bleeding, animal survival, as well as gross and microscopic changes. The KPP-D group showed the shortest bleeding time for all bleeding models (a. 2.75 ± 0.64, b. 1.63 ± 0.54, c. Prexasertib in vitro 2.05 ± 0.62), significantly faster than all the other treatment groups. KPP-D also registered the highest survival rate of 100% with no display of gross abnormalities. CMC-G showed comparable bleeding time with CLX products but had a better survival rate at 98% compared to 96%.Prexasertib in vitro